Chronic Poverty, Technology and Human Development:

A Comparative Analysis of Cycle Rickshaw Pliers and Electric Rickshaw Pliers

 

 Laiq Zirack¹, Dr. Veeramani. S², Mohammad Hasan Zaidi³

¹Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Policy and Administration, Kandahar University.

²Assistant Professor, Centre for Management Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-110025.

³A Research Scholar, Center for management Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi – 110025.

 

ABSTRACT:

This paper attempts to capture how in our technology driven world, the unskilled unstructured labor class in developing economies still has to depend on sheer physical strength to earn a livelihood and how technological alternates for labor do not benefit them to a great degree. The case of plying manual rickshaws and electric rickshaw was compared in this research paper; primary data was used to infer such forms of occupation are NOT sufficient to support a healthy and sustainable lifestyle as per major indices of human development. The collected data shows that almost all respondents plying manual rickshaws are living under the extreme poverty slab as per UNDP while two thirds of those plying electric rickshaw are under the extreme poverty slab which is the first goal among the Millennium Development Goals. The information collected reflects upon the human development induced by technology diffusion as much as 25% flux. This indicated the need for economic restructuring, better policy regulation and implementing technology in poverty eradication. As there are indeed alternates available and waiting to be explored.

 

 

 

I. INTRODUCTION:

There are innumerable ways of understanding and stating problems that civilization has been dealing with since higher social conscience and interdependency has been understood. Aristotle from “The Three Big” of the Greek Philosophy said the worst form of inequality is to try to make equal what is unequal. Inequality is an issue that has often decided the course of history as this deprivation of the masses has brought about revolution. In modern times, inequality is intensively studied and has immense literature developed on both the aspect of governance and humanitarian studies.

 

The statistician has made it easier to understand inequality as numbers make comparison simple. The numbers for India are great as a country for the year 2016, its ranked 7^th for GDP¹ and 3^rd for the GDP (PPP)² with a 7.1% growth on a year on year basis³. This means, to the world, that we as a country are flourishing and growing at an impressive rate. But as we break down the same numbers to the per capita rankings there is a drastic change. India is ranked 141^st at per capita GDP and 122^nd at per capita GDP PPP. This is where the concept of human development comes in. Ranked as the 130^th country when it comes to human development index, India has not been able to grow both state and civilian at the same pace. As a means to understand how to quantify the inequality of the population, the policy makers study the composition, and spread of the different dimensions of human development. The spread helps us see the distribution of dimensions attributed to for livelihood and the base helps us understand the degree of deprivation, which is actually the negative deviation from the aggregated scenario. As a country, India has around 40% of its population living in rural areas. By virtue of the theory of rational choice, these rural inhabitants have a tendency to migrate to urban areas looking for opportunity. Most of the unskilled and unstructured labor of the country cannot be accounted for as they work in unregulated industries. It is these poverties-stricken groups that are the base sample for the population as 80% of the population under poverty resides in rural India. Considering the reciprocal relation between choice and opportunity, the rural inhabitants migrate to urban settlements in search of better opportunity for social wellbeing⁴. Among the migrated labor, one of the most common choices of work is to ply rickshaws. This is due to the easy of entry in the occupation. Even though there are no definite figures, an estimated 1.5-2% of the Indian population is in this industry. Considering the current poverty rate of 21.9% for the country, almost 10% of the poverty stricken are in the rickshaw plying industry⁵. The industry has been integral part of the Indian Para-transit. Regulations to the rickshaw plying were incorporated as early as 1960. There are two types of rickshaws plying in Delhi currently, the traditional cycle rickshaws which are manually pulled and the most advanced form of these rickshaws that are battery operated.

 

1.     Cycle Rickshaw:

One of the most traditional and common forms of commuting in day to day life of Indians have been Rickshaws. These are cheap man-pulled/powered tri-cycles that accommodate up to four patrons or at times luggage and were initially instigated in great numbers by serfdom during the British Raj in India. The number of people who see this profession as a means to livelihood has risen for a considerable period of time due to the emergence of a democratic system of governance and the youngness of the country with less infrastructure or job opportunities. The road systems were not very functional at rural or sub-urban areas and only parts of the major cities had connectivity of roads. Para transit initially saw the rickshaws being pulled by humans running in front of them, such as the carts pulled by animals, but it was the onset of 1970s that brought the cycle rickshaws in vogue⁶ (Geography of Transport Development in India). This was influenced in the next few decades by the exponential growth of both population and economy. Like all other occupations rickshaws too have also seen its share of technological advancement. The traditional bulky wooden frames have been replaced by light weight and slender metal frames. Once considered a suitable resort for the jobless, it has been common in many Asia pacific countries in different forms. Today it is one of the most opted professions for the immigrated labor in metropolitan cities. There are innumerable aspects in behavior of the immigrated labors. The two occupations with most ease for such labor force are working in either construction sites (opted by both men and women) or rickshaw pulling (opted by men mostly). Apparently an estimated ten million people are in the specific field of work, rickshaw pulling today in India. The profession was once seen as a dignified form of earning, but has since seen drastic degradation due to both technological advances and improvement of living standards in India. Both of which have acted as forces against the livelihood of the rickshaw pullers which within itself is an unstructured form of work. The most valuable aspect of this mode to commute has been that it does not increase fuel emissions. However, that does not overshadow the fact that as an occupation it has seen little if none advancements and depends on the sheer physical strength of the rickshaw puller.

 

2. Electric Rickshaw:

Launched in Delhi in the year 2010, the battery-operated rickshaws are the most technologically advanced form of rickshaws used today. Introduced for the purpose of short distance commute for the Common Wealth Games patrons, these electric rickshaws are environment friendly. There are no emissions as the vehicle runs on electric energy stored in rechargeable Lead Acid batteries. These “E-Rickshaws” are NOT governed under the Motorized Vehicle Act 1988; in fact, they are yet to be regulated completely. These Electric rickshaws gained popularity in China and Bangladesh before India and have been revolutionary for a pollution check. According to the “Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database” in the year 2016 Delhi was ranked the 11^th most polluted city in the world and the third most polluted capital in the world at PM 2.5 and ranked 25^th at PM 10 levels (WHO, 2016)⁷. These rickshaws are a step towards a greener environment best suited for cities like Delhi. These E-rickshaws are not made in India but instead imported into the country as either Complete Knock down (CKD) Units or Complete Built up (CBU) units. The mild steel chassis and aluminum sheet/fiber bodies are light weight and they come in variants of 48V to 60 V capacity. Estimates suggest that the number of electric rickshaws plying today in Delhi is around 400000. This mode of transport has immense potential; especially as a viable means of cheap transport for the last mile issues. The other design of these electric rickshaws is being used as the electric cart. With a modified design the same technology can be used to carry luggage, supply chain support and even be used in garbage disposal units. The applications are innumerable. The fact that one charge can run these electric rickshaws up to a 100 kilometers means that the expenses are extremely low for such a distance. First legalized in Tripura, the “tuktuk” (regional name in Tripura), it was brought under the Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Bill 2015 in the month of March. Even though the e-rickshaw is yet to be completely regulated, it is seen as the future and solution to many transport needs.

 

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

There is a global consensus today that every able member of the population needs to be producing one way or the other so as to achieve higher productivity for the economy and we all have a need out of the economic framework to contribute and be remunerated in reciprocity. The degree to which we contribute to the economy shall return to us in equal if not folds so that we may sustain and acquire in the major dimensions of human development to further enable the future progeny for the same process with a higher level of efficiency or in other words, we are to reproduce and produce generation after generation. In any given society certain members are dependants and then there are some who they depend on. Following the theory of Social Choice as stated by Amritya Sen 1986, it is evident that the poor and rich do not face the same opportunities and the factors that influence decision making are different accordingly. In 1971 Madan states the relevance of literacy, unemployment and asset endowment as factors that influence the choice making framework towards a progressive direction. This means that those under poverty have a radical choice approach towards fulfillment of their needs.⁸ Members of families are accounted for as mouths to feed or hands for labor based on age distinction therefore in rural areas.  The sense of need for social security becomes begotten out of these basic necessities that the rural inhabitants do not have access to. Even in the early stages of the nation, India already saw deprivation based on caste and birth place which is well elaborated by Kosambi 1946.⁹

 

Among the most evident is the eminent fact that the once agriculture-based labor force of the country now sees an end to profitability due to the overheads and cost of farming with small land areas. The rural inhabitants, already facing the tarnishing tag of caste, have difficulty finding employment as money, education and industrial skill are all needed but not available for the rural, Hurst 2002 observes in the matters of social inequality¹⁰. Bhatt 1989, the major income to these rural areas is channeled from urban areas; this creates a tendency to migrate to such places¹¹. J H Khan 2010 The labor force migrates to places with higher opportunity¹². Observable as a trend among all developing nations that have rickshaw pulling, Begum and Binayak 2004, the opportunity to ply a rickshaw seems no less than a livelihood to these people who are going through chronic poverty¹³. Begum and Sen 2005, migrated labor feels that the lack of employment can be challenged by such choices, making the profession a popular occupation among rural labor force¹⁴. Reuveny 2007, the migrated labor followed the traditional agricultural occupations before the onset of technological advances, in agriculture on lands of small sizes and these land holdings have become obsolete under natural calamities and its repercussions¹⁵. Sustainability demands occupations that may support development, which in turn favors economic growth. Priya Deshingkar and Shaheen Akter 2009 in coherence to many others observed that as an occupation the manual rickshaws are an eco-friendly option¹⁶. Is this enough as a merit for the occupation to sustain even under such a flux of technological advances as the ultimate solution to para-transit? For as long ago as 1935, Peng S, the occupation has seen criticism due to policies that leave fewer options for growth¹⁷; Saito T 1979 argued back then that this Japanese invention was a technological advancement¹⁸. Warren 1985 states that the ordeal is both endangering and hazardous in the long run¹⁹, leading to rheumatic diseases such as osteoarthritis and chronic breathing infections observed by S A Haq et al 2005²⁰. Researches suggest that almost a half of the rickshaw puller is prone to heat strokes, a majority have experienced muscle or joint pain on a continuous basis²¹ (P J Mishra, Suman L, IJDR 2014) M S Islam, et al 2016, state that in addition to the health hazards the pliers lack nutrition, hygiene and sanitation on extreme levels of deprivation²². Ahmed A 2005, states that due to congestions caused by the unregulated rickshaws lead to traffic jams²³; Ganguly S 1982, regulating the numbers of rickshaws leads to unemployment among the pliers. In addition to this issue²⁴, Pacione M 2005, certain regions in cities are restricted to entry by such pliers for regulation and maintenance of roads²⁵. Human rights activists such as Kishwar M P 2006 have criticized this regulation and seizing of cycle rickshaws for the same reason, with the intention to highlight the need for human development she also suggested that the agenda for economic reforms had to be oriented bottom up (2009)²⁶. These regulations magnify the issues of the pliers, Poirier 2009, as around 95% of these rickshaws are rented and the pliers do not afford to buy their own rickshaws²⁷.

 

Several socio-economic assessments have been made for the rickshaw pulling occupation, Rukhsana 2013, states that these pliers are among the poorest of the poor in the society²⁸, Mani A N 2011, they do not have means to save or gain assets, the governmental reports agree to the figures and arguments²⁹. The national Commission for Enterprises in Unorganized Sector reports in 2012 that the conditions are much degraded for the labor forces, a matter that the International Labor organization sees as a violation of social security (2010)³⁰. Coherently the reports by the Ministry of Labor and Employment for the problems of the unorganized sector show the need for reform as the occupation is not enough to sustain livelihood³¹. Even the planning commission is keenly focusing on the basic needs of the poor in the 12^th plan. The intervention of technology was needed for human development of the unorganized labor. In the verbal pleasantries of A Sen at STICERD 1997 words such as GALA and Blast were used to contrasts the endowment achieved in monetary form to that of capabilities with the influence of technology and development, stating the relevance of the both verticals and their inter-dependency³². Romer et al 1990 signifies the relevance of input in all dimensions of development is proportionate to technological advances in these dimensions³³.  Keller 2004 argues that this inward flux of technology when infused in domestic markets leads to higher development³⁴ aligned to Lucas’s belief 1988 that “input” in every dimension leads to growth³⁵.  R Gustav 2011 stated in one his last works that technology and human development were to progress hand in hand based on the current speed of innovation and the relevance it holds in the different dimensions of development³⁶.

 

Dean Nelson in 2010 wrote for the Telegraph that the inhumane manual rickshaws are to be replaced by electricity operated ones³⁷. The electric rickshaw was introduced in the light of the Common Wealth Games 2010 for para-transit as a means to solve the last mile transit problem. S Gadepalli 2006, foretold that the occupation needed a technological uplift to survive the new millennium³⁸. Taking into account the Moore’s Law, innovation was far ahead in many other structured forms of labor. The lack of regulation and policy worked as a hindrance to the same.  AK Rajvanshi in the year 2002 had already introduced several iterations to the Indian style rickshaw that were battery operated³⁹, M A Hossain 2012⁴⁰ and M M Rhaman 2013⁴¹ also encouraged the technological intervention in rickshaw pulling. However, a rather refined design was already being imported from neighboring countries by then. The technical scrutiny of the design and its regulation were taken up in an attempt to govern this alternate with more stringency. Mitra et. al. 2012 found out that the introduction of this battery-operated rickshaw promised opportunity for employment⁴² and Mitra et al 2013 confirm that it was an apt replacement to the traditional rickshaws in para-transit⁴³. The initial glory and acceptance to the electric rickshaw saw a decline due to the unchecked import and manufacture of the different models in different nations. R Bhasin&A Bhardwaj 2014 elaborated how the structural flaws, unchecked growth make e-rickshaws a safety hazard⁴⁴. Tawfique Ali 2014 wrote to the Daily Star News about the different bans stating that the “Electric Rickshaws run out of steam”⁴⁵. At the same chronological time frame the manually pulled cycle rickshaw saw extreme criticism as a means to livelihood due to the physically taxing nature in the light of technological and socio-economic appraisal. M Ali 2013 stated that the majority of the pliers were under extreme deprivation, J H Khan et al 2014 studied the condition in the city Aligarh, Pratibha 2014 in Bilaspur city and P Kumar &U Gupta 2015 in Gorakhpur city. The different approaches added up to the literature brought attention to different factors of sustainability and livelihood that were all way below the expected standards. Shashank S 2014 assessed the electric rickshaw and agreed that the alternate had become an integral part of the para-transit for the capital of the country already. V D Srivastava confirms that the electric rickshaw serves as a suitable alternate to the manual rickshaw that is also eco-friendly and an opportunity for better employment to unorganized labor that migrates from rural areas. The challenges do not end as there needs to be a system to counterfeit the Curb Cartelisation of e-rickshaws that V Kant 2014 brought to general attention.  These matters need to be equally addressed as technological advances have been regressed as having co-linearity to job polarization and inequality by J Albertini et al in 2015, and the fact that the electric rickshaw is not completely regulated leaves opportunity for resistance to acceptance by the manual rickshaw pliers as stated by A Hornstein et al 2007. As J Albertini et al 2016 states, the country needs a consistent yet controlled flux of the import of the electric rickshaw to maintain regulation and prevent cartelization of the apparatus against its ability to support livelihood of those in need. For us to be a developed economic entity after all, in the words of Lynge Nielsen the neo-classicist economist takes into account the different factors such as infrastructure, health and even opportunity.

 

III OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF STUDY:

The study intends to record the state of socio-economic deprivation that the Rickshaw Pulling occupation in the National Capital Territory; and weighs the pros and cons in the introduction of Electric rickshaws as an accessible substitute to the occupation. We understand that the capital of the country, New Delhi has the second highest HDI in the country after Kerala (due to highest literacy rates) as it has the highest per-capita income of approximately Rupees 20800 per month for the year 2015. This setting becomes a suitable environment to study the degree of inequality in the major dimensions of human development and future implications they may hold. The objectives of the study are:

·       To assess the socio-economic status on cross-sectional time frame of cycle rickshaw pliers and electric rickshaw pliers.

·       To compare rickshaw pullers condition to that of electric rickshaw pliers.

·       Limitations in policy making for Electric rickshaws.

·       To project basic financial simulations of operational models for electric Rickshaw for poverty eradication.

 

Study Area:

New Delhi has approximately 20million inhabitants (**Estimates released by Registrar General of India in August 1996)⁴⁶ making it the second most populous city in the country and fourth in the world with a population density of more than 15160 people per square mile. New Delhi has been the capital of India since December 1911. It has served the purpose of the financial and industrial hub in northern India ever since. Colloquially called by different names, the NCT or National Capital Territory includes the neighboring districts along with Delhi. With decadal population growth rate of almost 20%, it is also the most immigrated to for occupation. Delhi has a literacy rate of 86.34% and a sex ratio of 866 females to 1000 males, it is very progressive and developing city. Of all the inhabitants almost 80% are Hindu, 13 % are Muslims, 5% Sikhs, 1% Jainis and less than 1% Christians. With the worlds cheapest eco-friendly bus service (DTC), India’s first Metro Train system and the biggest airport of the country, it has all infrastructure required for connecting to the whole world. It is home to innumerable central government offices, including the Parliament House, the Supreme Court of the country, and many Ministerial Offices, as well as international organizations regional offices such as UNDP, UNESCO, WHO, WFP etc. With a total of 70 legislative constituencies for electoral roles and 276 municipal wards it reflects as a suitable example of democratic governance. The city has been divided into three classifications for the purpose of study. The area of study has been stratified into urban, sub-urban and slum areas. The three different standards evidently allow different monetary and social conditions to prevail. Thereby appropriate to capturing the slight difference in socio-economic scenario of the respondents living in different conditions. The Seelampur are chosen as a slum area, the Jamia Nagar area chosen as a sub-urban area and Lajpat Nagar chosen as an urban area.

 

IV DATA AND METHODOLOGY:

1.  Research Design:

The research question is “whether the introduction of higher technology in the rickshaw plying occupation helps improve the living standards of the pliers”? There are innumerable indicators used to understand or assess the socio-economic well-being in a society. With higher scrutiny of methodology and introduction of many factors to measure social well-being international metrics have seen a boom. There are now several indices introduced and ascertained by the statisticians. To assess the socio-economic conditions of the respondents, the collected data has been tested on the four most accepted human development indices, i.e. Human Development Index (HDI), the Inequality adjusted Human Development Index (iHDI), the Multi-dimensional Poverty index and the Alkire Foster Method⁴⁷. In addition to the socio-economic comparison the legal frame work has also been examined for ease of operation and social impact. The hypothesis hence is:

 

Hypothesis (H₁): There is no significant improvement in the socio-economic conditions of electric rickshaw pliers due to technological advances as compared to cycle rickshaw pliers.

Hypothesis (H₂): Policy makers are able to counter poverty and unemployment with the current regulations for electric rickshaws compared to cycle rickshaw plying.

 

2. Participants:

The estimated population size is around 1 million for the cycle rickshaw pliers in Delhi; the sample size was derived at a confidence level of 95% with Z value of 1.96, such that the confidence interval was set at 10 for a worst case scenario percentage of accuracy at 50%. The implications of these values is that for any interpretation based on the research, the realistic response may differ by not more than 10 % reflecting upon 95% of the real population.  The resulting sample size being 96 respondents, the survey conducted took 100 responses.  For the electric rickshaw pliers with an estimated population of almost half a million, the same values were considered to find a total of 100 respondents. The inclusion criteria was occupational and hence no other filters were used except to divide the respondents into the two groups based on whether the rickshaws were manual or battery operated.

 

3. Materials:

The research has been conducted using primary data generated through written survey questionnaires, audio recorded interviews, personal video interviews and video documented informal group discussions with respondents in Delhi NCT. The research was structured in a non-contrived setting using a descriptive approach. The use of non-probabilistic convenience sampling was suitable for the stratified areas of Delhi that were targeted based on the afore-mentioned criterion for the study area. The questions were based on the different indices used to assess the final scores on the scales for human development. The HDI and IHDI take into account the same data variables, while the MPI and the Alkire Foster method require the same data variables with the exception of the respondent’s income which is not required for the MPI. Broadly divided, there are three dimensions that the variables are categorized in; Education, Healthcare and Living Standards. A nutritional survey has been conducted at the 2 most used local food vendors (Dhabas) that the respondents purchase cooked food from; a survey of the healthcare awareness has been conducted through a group discussion and the owners of a few rickshaw stands have been interviewed to inquire about the operational costs involved. The speed of the electric rickshaws has been tested using the speedometer used in Bajaj Pulsar 150 CC 2013 model. The battery voltage for the electric rickshaws has been tested using a Digital DT9205aA LCD Handheld Multitester Voltmeter Ammeter Ohm Multimeter.

 

4. Instruments:

The indices that the socio-economic evaluation is tested on have been designed to capture the different elements of wellbeing in a civilized setting, such that shows interdependency among the members and the sharing of resources and productivity for overall distribution of the endowment, the degree of inequality in the framework for distribution and the understanding of the digression in endowment patterns and the implications these factors have human developments key dimensions. The HDI (Misbah, Sen 1990) MPI (OPHI, UNDP 2012), IHDI (UNDP 2010), Alkire Foster method (Alkire, Foster et al. 2012) as indices can appropriately reflect the human development, we must know the; (i) kind of measure it takes; i.e. size, spread or base and (ii) core structure; i.e. dimensional, disaggregation, inter-dimensional linkages and weighing dimensions (Alkire 2016). Both the sample groups have therefore been scaled on the given indices.

(i) The HDI was developed by Mahbubul Haq et al, in the year 1990 as a composite indicator to the human development in an economy.

(ii) The IHDI takes into account the inequality of distribution in the three key dimensions. Based on the Atkinson (1970)⁴⁸ family of measures for inequality the inequality measure is Calculated as a difference in the geometric mean and the arithmetic mean of the distribution. It is calculated as follows:

 

5. Method of analysis:

The analysis has been conducted on two different aspects; the socio-economic conditions and the policy stringency. To assess the two different sample groups; the cycle rickshaw pullers and the electric rickshaw drivers: separate surveys were conducted and therefore the datasets were tested at certain parameters separately and tested as a group at other parameters. Hence, the study is broadly divided into the two aspects for analysis, i.e. socio-economic scenario and post-policy benefits and further divided into the two subject groups, i.e. the rickshaw pullers (Group A) and electric rickshaw drivers (Group B).

 

6. Socio-economic study:

The demographic and statistical observations are as follows:

(i) Statistical Observation:

The cycle rickshaw pullers in Delhi have majorly migrated from four states of northern India. The major reason for all labor to migrate to bigger cities was lack of opportunity for work in rural parts of India. The poverty rate of India as a country is 21.92% as per the Asian Development Bank as of 2016. These rural parts are where around 80% of the poor in India live according to the 2016 World Bank country wise poverty profiling and around 40% of the poor in India are living in one of the four states the respondents are from. Half of all the respondents were from Bihar for group A and 42% for group B, which ranks as the fifth poorest state in India (see Table 1) with a state poverty rate of 33.6%, followed by west Bengal with almost one third of the total respondents which has a state poverty rate of 19.98% which is lower than the national poverty rate. This shows how the vicinity or ease of travel also plays a deciding role in the migration trends.

 

Table 1 Respondent Rickshaw Pliers by Place of Birth

Source: Authors’ own calculation using data from World bank (State poverty rate, poverty state rank)

 

All the respondents have rural backgrounds. Among the rural inhabitants the most dominant ideologies or ways of living that exist are highly influenced by religion. Religion has been a predominant contributor to social structuring in the post-independence Indian society. The caste system still prevails in many parts of rural India, as such the person’s religion and thereafter their caste becomes the lens they are viewed from. In group A 70.84 respondents are Muslim while the remaining respondents are Hindu. These rickshaw pullers are mostly from OBC (other Backward Classes) in the society who are highly dependent on the policy making and quota systems for all forms of assistance in social development. A quarter of the respondents are from the minorities of higher caste, they neither receive benefits from caste nor from minority’s status. Under such circumstances the limit of choice further deepens the gap of opportunity and chances for them to sustain a livelihood in rural parts of the country. In contrast, of the respondents of group B 56% are Muslims and almost 48% do not come under any quota or preference system, in other words only low caste Hindus are plying e-rickshaws.

 

Table 2 Distribution of respondents by Caste

Source: Authors’ own calculation using data collected from respondents

 

Age plays a vital role in the occupational life of all forms of labor. The rickshaw pullers tend to start off young and stay in the business for as long as their body can bear. Unfortunately, there are several poverty-stricken families that want their children to start earning as young as 14 years of age. They tend to marry at a very early average age of around 18.65 years. Of the total respondents there are only 4% who have not been married. By the age of 50 very few who do this kind of labor are desperately in need for livelihood. In Group A 70% are from the age 27-42 (see Table 2). The average age of the respondents is 35 years which suggests that rickshaw pulling is the occupation they have to resort to as the prime profession for their lives. Group B respondents have a wider distribution when it comes to age, apparently one-sixth of the pliers are under age and the average age is lower than that of group A, i.e. 32 years. 70 % of the respondents are from the underage slab to 34 years of age. The fact that the group B has mechanical advantage means that it can be adopted by older pliers is evident from the respondents of higher age.

 

Table 2 Respondent Rickshaw Pullers by Age Group

Source: Authors’ own compilation based on the data collected during the research from respondents

 

The consensus that there is great ease of entry in such unstructured forms of labor and that there are no expenses for operative cycle is quite misguided. Of all the respondents of group A, only 6.25 percent own the rickshaws they pull, while that of group B own 8 percent. The remaining respondents have to bear a daily charge for maintenance and operative requirements of the apparatus along with a daily rent. These expenses decide the amount of income that that they end up saving on a daily basis in comparison to the owners who have multiple rickshaws. The average monthly expenditure to ply an electric rickshaw is almost the same amount as their income after expenses.

 

Table 3 Respondents Operational Expenses

Source: Authors’ own compilation based on the data collected during the research from respondents

 

Education is accounted for as one of the three major dimensions of livelihood as per the indices for socio-economic development used globally. While the HDI and IHDI concentrate on the expected years and mean years of education: at time of birth and by the age of 25 years respectively; the MPI and Alkire Foster method look into the completion of 5 years of schooling by the adult members of the household and at least 8 years of schooling for the children in the household. The level of education is one of the factors that enable better occupational achievements and social duties, the respondents of group A reflect upon the same as 60% of them have never been at a school. The arithmetic mean years of schooling for the subject group are 2.17 and the average expected years of schooling with accordance to the respective years of birth is 6.2. The implications of lower educational achievement also include less motivation to educate children of such households. It is observable in their children as per the educational levels accomplished. The level of education for group B also is the same at the first benchmark, with almost 58% respondents who have no education. The mean years of schooling⁴⁹ are 3.08 and the expected years of schooling mean is 7.4 which shows a higher gap compared to group A, which means the respondents of group B are younger, yet have less educational exposure. One of the respondents, however, had a bachelor’s degree from group B from a state university of Bihar.

 

Table 4 Respondents by Years of Schooling and that of their Children

Source: Authors’ own compilation based on the data collected during the research from respondents

 

The respondents are less-acquainted to educational benefits; this leaves them with little if not no understanding to earn and sustain. The average income of a cycle rickshaw puller in Delhi is 8709 INR. The average size of a family of the respondents is 6.7 members, which means 1300 INR is the expendable amount per person. The first of the millennium development goals (MDG) by the United Nations is to remove extreme poverty, which as of 2016 has been raised to the daily income line of 1.90$ (World Bank). Extreme poverty is the most targeted area of improvement for global human development among all 179 UN countries. With accordance to the research primary data only 6 % of the rickshaw pullers with group A are above this global line of extreme poverty, apparently due to the overall income of the household being contributed to by multiple earning members. Among the respondents of group B only 10 percent are above this line, due to the fact that they own their e-rickshaws and don’t have to pay such high rents on a daily basis. The average income of all the household members is however not at a very different level at 10823 INR; which makes the income expendable per person to RS 1615 for group A. While the income of the group B is slightly higher at 14318 the expendable income is around 1873 INR as the average family size is around 7.6 members. Income is the second of the three dimensions of assessing social well-being. The HDI and IHDI calculate the income index as the differential of the natural log of the Gross national income (GNI in dollars) to that of the natural log of $100 US or in other words it is the highest if the GNI per capita is 75000 $ and zero when the GNI per capita is $100 US. Interestingly the MPI does not take into account the income directly as a variable but instead the assets and housing amenities of the respondents as it is an index that measures the base of the population. The modification that the Alkire Foster method brought about to the MPI is the addition of the “poverty gap” as a parameter for measuring the degree of deprivation from the poverty line, i.e. the extreme poverty line of 1.90$ (World Bank) in this research. This gap is squared for convention thereby it is converted to a positive numbers. The arithmetic mean of the poverty gap for the respondents of group A is 62.65 INR and group B is 47.9 INR which is almost half of the 1.90$ a day. The table also shows that almost 60% of the respondents have less than 50 cents a day worth of income to dispense in group A and 20% in group B. However, the distribution shows that the majority for group A and Group B is distributed towards the gap of 1.4$ and 1$ respectively.

 

In rural India, most of the houses either are huts or a shanty. The respondents of group A, who are mostly under the extreme poverty line, do not afford cemented roofing or arrangements for other amenities. The state of the dwelling shows their deprivation as around two-thirds live in a shanty and only around 33.34% have afforded use of concrete in the structures of their houses. They claim ownership of the properties however only 36.25 % of them have any form of notary documentation to support their statements. Lack of education prevents them from legally acquiring their ancestral lands. The respondents of group B also have similar conditions, as the same amount live in rural areas in shanties, while more of them have notary to support their claim of ownership. Comparatively eight times as many respondents of group B do not own a house. When migrating to larger cities they seek the cheapest form of lodging as that allows more savings to send back to their rural counterparts. The information about the dwellings of both groups collected shows that one room or slum of 8’x8’ dimension has around 5 tenantspaying a total rent of 3500 INR for the place.]

 

Table 5 Distribution of Family Size, Income per person and Alkire Foster Gap

Family Size	Percentage Group A	Percentage Group B
1-4 members (Nuclear Small)	25	12.25
5-8 members (Nuclear Big)	56.25	43.33
9-12 members (Joint Small)	8.33	28
13-16 members (Joint Big)	8.33	10.17
17-20 members (Extended)	2.09	6.25
Income per family member	Percentage	Percentage Group B
Below Extreme poverty line/4	12.5	8.67
Below Extreme poverty line/2	54.17	15.42
Below Extreme poverty line3/4	20.83	23.31
Below Extreme poverty line	6.25	42.27
Above Extreme poverty line	6.25	10.33
Alkire Foster Gap	Percentage	Percentage Group B
Gap above 1.4 $	6.25	6.25
Gap up to 1.4 Dollar	54.17	14.33
Gap up to 95 Cents	25	24.75
Gap up to 50 cents	8.33	44.34
Positive Gap	6.25	10.33

Source: Authors’ own calculation

 

Table 6 Dwellings Ownership and Roofing distribution of respondent

Type of House	Percentage Group A	Percentage Group B
Kucha (Shanty)	66.66	52.33
Semi Pakka (Mud and Tiles)	8.34	23.33
Pakka (Bricks and concrete)	25	24.34
Ownership of House	Percentage Group A	Percentage Group B
Owned	36.25	44
Owned (No notary only Claim)	39.25	22.75
Rented	2.08	16.67
No Ownership	22.42	16.58
Types of Roofing	Percentage Group A	Percentage Group B
Leaves	20.83	13.17
Tiles/ Cement Sheet	56.25	63.50
Concrete	22.92	23.33

Source: Authors’ own calculation based on the data collected from respondents

 

The size of the rooms/shanty is so small that the tenants rotate sleeping hours as all of them cannot sleep in this much space at once. The roofing on most of these dwellings is done using leaves and plastic sheets, they do not have any water supply or sanitation and there are limited electricity arrangements.

 

The factors that are considered to appraise the living standards in both socio-economic status and MPI are a substitute to income as a factor of living standard used in the HDI and IHDI. These inclusions are after a considerable amount of debates and discussions. The more prominent ones of which are the Stiglitz Sen Fitoussi Commission, An application to MDG Indicators (PDe Muro, et al 2009) and the 20^th anniversary of the UNDP HDR initiative. These factors reflect upon the level of social facilitation and its level of integration in the society as a whole. The observation of the living conditions and day to day requisites to sustenance when taken into account, have a broader scope of representing the struggle for basic necessities. The major factors that the MDG guidelines have seen important for sustenance are electricity, sanitation, cooking fuel, drinking water, flooring and assets. The respondents have a very low living standard index as per these factors. The mean score of group A is 0.06 and group B is 0.11 out of the relative weight of 0.33 that the index has been designed for. This is evident as 93.75% of group A respondents are deprived of assets and only 6.25 % of the group A respondents have safe drinking water as per the MDG guidelines. The figures show that the group B respondents have slightly better living standards and almost 88 percent are deprived of assets and 84 % do not have safe drinking water.

 

Table 7 Distribution of respondents on Indicatirs of Living Standards as per MPI

Indicators of Living Standard	Percentage deprived Group A	Percentage deprived Group B
Electricity	68.75	61.4
Sanitation	77.09	68.25
Safe drinking water	93.75	84.25
Floor	72.92	68.75
Cooking Fuel	81.25	72.09
Assets	93.75	88.25

Source: Authors’ own compilation based on the data collected from respondents

 

Good Health has forever been a debatable state of being for both individual and society as a whole. To be able to quantize the physical wellbeing is a task within itself, but when ascertained for a large population, certain attributes become more relevant than the others. The child mortality rate and life expectancy have been used a means to assess the same in several indices; which in case of this research vary both according to place of birth and year for the respondents; while otherbroader indices have included factors such as the nutritional intake and access to medication too.To rejuvenate and recreate the rickshaw pullers often use alcohol or drugs as a remedy. Among the Group A respondents only 8.32 do not consume narcotics or drink alcohol and regardless of age two thirds of the rickshaw pullers consume alcohol. Up on further inquiry 58% of the respondents stated that they are drinking or taking drugs as a supplement to expensive pain killers. Almost 96% of the respondents are aware and can access allopathic medicine. However only 10.4% have need for life saving drugs for chronic disease. An interesting trend among the group B respondents is that the slightly higher incomes encourage them to consume 20% as much narcotics almost and only 3.12 percent do not consume any drugsor alcohol.

 

 

Table 8 Distribution of respondents on Life Expectancy and Drug Consumption

Life Expectance	Percentage Group A	Percentage Group B
40-45 years of age	12.5	16.67
45-50 years of age	16.67	11.66
50-55 years of age	33.33	27.42
55 years and above	37.5	44.25
Consumption of Narcotics and Alcohol	Percentage Group A	Percentage Group B
Alcohol	70.83	88.25
Mirjuana	31.25	41.25
Tobacco Chewing (includes Gutka)	66.67	83.33
Smoking	54.21	64.33
Heroin	18.75	27.50

Source: Authors’ own compilation based on the data collected from respondents

 

(ii) Empirical Findings:

Conclusively, the respondents have been tested for their overall socio-economic status with the help of the different indices mentioned in the methodology of the paper. The numbers indicate that the Rickshaw pullers (Group A) in India, a type of unskilled and unstructured labor, with a majority of migrated workers from rural parts of the country; which as a population constitute around 1.5% of the total country's population is under the extreme poverty line as per the UNDP and World Bank. Their conditions are equivalent to that of the Least Developed countries and only the country rankings have been compared such that they are at rank 176 in HDI against 162 of group B (calculated for 178 countries), 120 in IHDI against 115 of group B (calculated for 140 countries), 1… in MPI while group B is 1… and the Alkire foster method suggests that higher the score, more the degree of deprivation; which can be observed as the scores of Group A reveal extreme deprivation and that of Group B are close to mediocre deprivation.

 

Table 9 Scores of respondents groups on HDI, IHDI, MPI and Alkire foster method indices.

Index	Status Group A	Status Group A
HDI	0.4375	0.4964
IHDI (HDI with inequality adjusted)	0.3365	0.3825
MPI	0.3406	0.4361
Foster Alkire Method (MPI income gap adjusted)	25.3361	18.2496

Source: Authors’ own calculation from the data collected from respondents

 

The contrast of the socio-economic status of the respondents of the two groups, i.e. the rickshaw pullers and the electric rickshaw drivers shows that the two groups are not too far apart. The slight difference in the scores of both groups in the different indices is due to the fact that the electric rickshaw driver has mechanical advantage over his traditional counterpart and therefore has longer hours of work without any physically taxing ordeals. This allows for the 27% difference in the average monthly income. This in turn reflects upon the positive relation between the human development and technological progress⁵⁰.

 

H₀1: There is no significant improvement in the socio-economic conditions of electric rickshaw pliers due to technological advances as compared to cycle rickshaw pliers.

The null hypothesis may be rejected as technology has had significant influence in improving the socio-economic conditions of the pliers by 27% at income dimension and an aggregate deviation in different human development indices of 19.6%.

 

7. Assessment of Electric Rickshaw Occupation and Social Impact:

One of the most relevant reasons that the respondent groups have an occupation is that the two professions are eco-friendly forms of transport for short distance travel and are extremely cheap forms of travel. The number of cycle rickshaws and electric rickshaws has risen with time; however the increase in numbers of both these rickshaws on roads cannot be contrasted as the two have very different timelines. It is evident from the records of free India that these rickshaws have been used on a regular basis. Some of the research respondents from the rickshaw pullers group have been in this profession for as long 40 years and have evidently supported families throughout their lives (below the extreme poverty line) by means of their profession after all. It shows how sustenance has been possible for many rural migrants due to the cycle rickshaws. Many studies, as mentioned in the review of literature, have been directed understanding how humanitarian it is for such a profession to still be abundant. Astoundingly 1 of every 100 Indians is managing a livelihood due to the cycle rickshaw profession (as a puller or a repair mechanic).

 

The more traditional cycle rickshaw has been a part of the transport system for decades, while the electric rickshaw was introduced in the year 2010 as a technological upgrade to the former. On grounds of social welfare too, the electric rickshaws are seen as the future to non-emission vehicles for local transport. It is indeed a “quantum lead” in the direction of sustainable development (V D Srivastava, M K Mishra 2015). If it were introduced as an alternate is was intended to replace the traditional cycle rickshaw and abolish such a physically taxing profession. Thereby replacing what is the least humane forms of transport with one that is subject to consideration. Certain schemes were introduced by the government also to promote this alternative. However, only one-fifth of the electric rickshaw drivers used to pull traditional rickshaws (Shashank s 2014).

 

8. Regulation, Requisites and Laws:

The two versions of the rickshaw are both in the ambit of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD). They require registration and licensing. The framework for the regulations is well tailored and takes into account great detail. The major rules and regulations for the rickshaw types is as follows:

 

I. Cycle Rickshaw:

The cycle rickshaws initially were under the jurisdiction of the Municipal Corporation of Delhi and it governs the regulations as per the Delhi Municipal Corporation Act1957 Chapter 2, sec 481 Power to make Bye Laws, Part L: Bye-Laws of Miscellaneous Matters sec-5(a). The laws were formulated in 1960 amend of the Bye-Laws. It looked into the licensing criteria, the limit to licenses per person and the seizing of illegal cycle rickshaws. The Citizen Services Bureau (CBS) of the zonal offices were subject to registering and granting licenses accordingly. The Bye-Laws maintained details of all requisites for a functional rickshaw to be licensed and the eligibility for a license, notably with a minimum age limit of 21 years of age. Conclusively it also included details of how plying without a license was to be penalized. In the year 1981 a petition was filed by the Azad Rickshaw Pullers Union Amritsar VS State of Punjab and Ors (AIR 14 1981 SCR-1 366)⁵¹ over the over the ban on non-owner rickshaw pullers in Punjab, that was later revoked and a policy was structured such that the rickshaw buyers may attain a loan based on their license and allowed the non-owners to ply in accordance to uphold any state law that expands the ideal of social justice in coherence with Article 38 of the Constitution. A petition was filed by Manushi Sangathan VS MCD Delhi and Ors on the 15^th June 2007to prevent exploitation of cycle rickshaw pullers in repercussion of penalty by the Bye-Laws 1960.  The matter escalated from the High Court to the Supreme Court of the country, the Supreme Court then appointed Mr Bharat Bhushan for a committee that looked into the illegal confiscation and complaints of rickshaw pullers in a special court and as a result; by circular from the Delhi High Court as of 19/2/2013 all MCD zonal authorities were ordered a instigate a fee of 500 INR for 5 year registration, 150 for license 3 years,  no inquiry of proof of purchase as directed by high court, no ID to be asked for either regulation as per high court, the photo license is to be made with no additional cost and free forms are to provide to all applicants, the turn-around-time to get a registration and license is within 2 days of completion of formalities, the authorities cannot ask for experience, knowledge of traffic rules or about any medical history, no ceiling limit to number of rickshaws has been allowed, reforms against scrapping or seizing of rickshaw were all formulated.

 

II. Electric Rickshaw:

As per the 8^th October, 2014 notification G.S.R. 709(E) by the Ministry of Road and Highways “E-rickshaw means a special purpose battery operated vehicle having three wheels and constructed or adapted t carry not more than 04 passengers, excluding the driver, and not more than 40 kilograms of luggage in total; the net power of its motor is not more than 2000 Watt and the maximum speed of the vehicle is not more than twenty-five kilometer per hour.”⁵² This is in coherence with the Central Motorized Vehicle rules 1989. Chapter 1, preliminary 2(u) states “Battery Operated Vehicle means a vehicle adapted for use upon roads and powered exclusively by an electric motor whose traction energy is supplied exclusively by traction battery installed in the vehicle. Provided that if the following conditions are verified and authorized by any testing agency specified in rule 126, the battery operated vehicle should not be deemed to be a motor vehicle. (i) the thirty minutes power of the motor is less than 0.25 kW (ii) the maximum speed of the vehicle is less than 25km/h.”⁵³

 

MVA 1988 Rule 126 for verification and authorization of electric vehicles states that “Prototype of every motor vehicle to be subject to test.—On and from the date of commencement of Central Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Rules, 1993, every 71 [manufacturer or importer] of motor vehicles other than trailers and semi-trailers shall submit the prototype of the vehicle 72[to be manufactured or imported by him] for test by the Vehicle Research and Development Establishment of the Ministry of Defense of the Government of India or Automotive Research Association of India, Pune, or the Central Machinery Testing and Training Institute, Budni (MP), or the Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun, and such other agencies as may be specified by the Central Government for granting a certificate by that agency as to the compliance of provisions of the Act and these rules.

 

[Rule 126-A. The testing agencies referred to in rule 126 shall, in accordance with the procedures laid down by the Central Government, also conduct tests on vehicles drawn from the production line of the manufacturer to verify whether these vehicles conform to the provisions of 355[rules made under section 110 of the Act:]]”⁵⁴

 

Width limit 1 meter and 3 year license renewal (in 709) 10 day training, 300 rupee fee for registration and road worthiness certificate from a manufacturer on sale of unit (13 January the gazette of India announces 2015 amend)

 

The first of the type Tripura Batery Operated Rickshaws Rules 2014 7 january Tripura gazette

 

To promote the newly included variant of rickshaws, on the 19^th of June 2014 the minister of Road Transport, Highways and Shipping, Mr. Nitin Gadkari proposed the Deendayal Scheme. The scheme offered loans at 3% for buying electric rickshaws⁵⁵. This was however revoked as the High Court on 31^st July 2014 temporarily banned the plying of electric rickshaws in the capital due to lack of regulations. Understanding the need to control traffic on the 11^th of December 2014, 236 roads specified restricted for plying of electric rickshaw by the Delhi government under the authority of the lieutenant governor Najeeb Jung. As of 24^th December 2014 the president of the country Pranab Mukherjee signed an ordinance that to allow the plying of electric rickshaws as per the amendment enforced on the 7^th January 2015 in the Motor Vehicle Act 1989.The Delhi government announced the Erick Sewa scheme on the 29 December 2014, notification number dc/aru/tpt/2014/245/1724 of transport department NCT; wherein a Number Plate with registration series DL 1ER, first aid box, fire extinguisher, details of permit holder on left of vehicle, transport and police helpline on inside and outside, yellow reflective strip on rear, dimension 2.8x1.8x1 meter, fitness certificate were included in the regulation. On the 30^th of April 2015 a circular was passed by the Delhi government that stated all electric rickshaws are to be sold only to those with an effective learner’s license. On the 15^th of February 2015 high court asked the government to formulate an insurance policy for any mishap during commute of patrons on an electric rickshaw. On the 3^rd of April 2016 the High Court asked the Delhi government to make recharge stations. The need for the same can be understood as on the 2^nd of November 2016 DISCOMS reported that 2.16 billion INR worth of electricity was being stolen every year due to lack or regulating energy use by electric rickshaws. The more recent inclusion that the High Court of Delhi wants the Delhi government to regulate is the registration of electric rickshaws.

 

H₀2: Policy makers are able to significantly counter poverty and unemployment with the current regulations for electric rickshaws compared to cycle rickshaw plying.

The null hypothesis may be rejected as the policy framework has not been structured yet and the different schemes introduced by the governance to help subject group have not been able to target the subject group population. In addition the lack of regulation leaves the group A respondents in a more difficulty as the number of unregistered electric rickshaw keeps increasing with time.

 

V. RESULTS OF STUDY:

Primarily, the research intended to evaluate the living conditions of the two subject groups. On the socio-economic parameters the cycle rickshaw pullers are extremely deprived and can be accounted for as a group of the population at the base of the distribution. The evaluation on the indices reflects that their conditions were equivalent to those of the last among the least developed countries. There is not one dimension where they fare well separately either, the repercussions are adverse. As these migrated labor provide eco-friendly transport they have been supported and promoted by different schemes from the legal framework and the different governments. Comparing the results to that of the general public in the country it is evident that the occupation as a whole is no longer apt to earn the bread and butter for a sustainable livelihood. The fact is that at a very principle level it is and always has been a profession that is physically taxing. Considering the remuneration that they receive, it coherently is a modern form of slavery. The other group i.e. the electric rickshaw drivers live in adverse conditions similarly, never the less the introduction of the battery-operated rickshaw is a progressive alternate to earn the basic necessities to sustain. The scores of the group on the different indices show that their conditions are similar to the most progressive and growing least developed countries. The flux of an additional 25% in the monthly incomes instigated considerable growth to their lives. Certain matters such as drinking water, sanitation, assets, medication and education pose as great hindrances to the socio-economic struggle of both the subject groups.

 

On parameters of the policy, legal frameworks governing the two professions, it is evident that the policy makers have a rich understanding to the essence of the constitution. The laws uphold with Article 38 of the constitution as they expand the ideal of social justice and well-being. The rickshaw pullers have been regulated since 1960 under the Delhi Municipal Corporation and the regulations are refined and well followed. In contrast to which the electric rickshaws are a very recent introduction to the economy. The regulations are yet to be abided by the authorities and pliers. New updates are on-going all in favor of a progressive system that promotes eco-friendly transport. The process is dynamic as democracy shall forever be. Taking into account the results of the research there is an urgent need to abolish the inhumane profession of cycle rickshaw plying as there are better alternates that technology has to offer. In view of the rate at which technology innovates and has been influential to human development (gustavyale 2011), also understanding that the task biased technology creates more jobs (Hairault, et. al. 2016) and it is a tendency for labor to incline towards a manual sector in comparison to routine sector in the long run which leads to job polarization (Autor and Dom, 2013) as can be observed form the numbers. In a six-decade long period of operation, there are an estimated 1 million cycle rickshaws in Delhi, while there are almost 0.3 million electric rickshaws on the roads of Delhi in less than a decade to get the average Indians through the last mile of the day to day journey.

 

Evaluation of both occupations:

The cycle rickshaws are no longer a viable practice for earning a livelihood, on humanitarian grounds the cycle rickshaw has been abolished in different parts of world, most importantly from China, where the mode of transport originated. The research has shown how the ghastly repercussions lead to a life of extreme deprivation, sided with the case study it is easily inferred that the society as a hole has seen the rickshaw pullers to have little if no dignity at all. One of the respondents who ply cycle rickshaw stated “for us to see the true colors of the society is easy, all we have to do is ask for an additional 2 rupees from the patron and they take no time in helping us understand why we are at the bottom of the social hierarchy”. The polarization of the migrated labor in favor of task biased technology means that the electric rickshaws are the future to the traditional cycle rickshaws. The exponential increase in the number of electric rickshaws in the lack of proper regulation has adverse consequences too.

 

The roads have a very few registered electric rickshaws. The survey suggests that as many as 95% of the electric rickshaws are illegal. The main reason is that the registered and licensed ones cost around 125000 INR while the ones without registration and safety requisites are less than half the price, i.e. 60000 INR. The cheaper alternates are not in agreement with the specified regulations. The battery capacity is almost 20% higher and the mean speed is around 34 kmph. This is a direct violation of the principle requirements that govern the laws. There are only three institutions with the authority to approve the designs and models of the manufactured electric rickshaws; however, the compliance to the benchmarks is not followed thoroughly. Most of these rickshaws are imported in parts and assembled in factories of India. The markets are selling electric rickshaws without any safety or health certificates. In addition to that the number of electric rickshaws a person may own is also not monitored. The reason electric rickshaws are not beneficial enough in the socio-economic uplift of the deprived is that cartels are running the industry. The upper middle-class owners purchase and lease multiple electric rickshaws. An owner of ten such rickshaws may earn an average 150000 INR a month considering the average rent of 350 INR per day and the rent they charge for recharging the batteries and the parking of the vehicle. They reach their break even within the first five months of operations. The average life of the electric rickshaws is 5 years, with an average maintenance cost of 300 INR per month and a battery replacement frequency of 10 months. This leaves them enough time to exploit the remaining 4 years of the vehicle life. These cartels have encroached land for the parking of these electric rickshaws. The DISCOMs of Delhi have estimated electricity theft of as much as 2.16 billion INR every month due to these cartels. The money they take from the drivers is for electricity that they have stolen, the land that they charge for the parking is illegally encroached. The drivers end up giving more to the owners and earning less for themselves. The benefits of technology hence ricochet from the lives of the deprived to the already endowed and well facilitated. The impact of technology is nullified as the socio-economic framework allows for the deprived to be further exploited.  The lower class migrated labor cannot purchase the electric rickshaws also due to the stringency of the documentation required for both registration and licensing (List in appendix).

 

VI. CONCLUSIONS:

The cycle rickshaw must be abolished considering the degree of deprivation the rickshaw pullers are currently going through; it is without a doubt a form of slave-like occupation that is a relic of our unjust past. As for the electric rickshaws, there is a need for ease of registration and licensing so that the lower section of the society may benefit from this new transport solution as an occupation. To keep a check on the losses due to electricity theft specific type of plugs for charging may be incorporated in the design that will prevent theft and promote use of charging stations (which may even have subsidized rates of charging to promote legal charging stations.). The speed and voltage both need to be regulated rigorously. To promote the transitional state of the non-fuel transport, the government may undertake regulated experimental operation models where the deprived are provided with electric rickshaws and the systems are used to formulate a feasible framework for governing the mode of transport. The undertaking may be funded solely by the government, a semi-governmental model or even the Corporate Social Responsibility budgets of private companies. The illegal rickshaws and the cartels that run them need to be penalized and strictly dealt with. The research has helped understand that the Electric Rickshaws are a step towards a progressive future but may be used in illegal unregulated manner that is more harmful for the local governance than it is beneficial socially.
Lack of governance has paved way for cartelization of this new technological application of the Electric Rickshaws. The groups controlling these cartels prevent the social benefits from impacting the pliers’ lives. Regulation to ownership, pliers’ licenses and registration are all required to curb these issues.

 

VII. REFERENCE:

1.      The World Bank Data Catalog Dataset GDP (2016) retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/GDP-ranking-table

2.      The World Bank Data Catalog Dataset GDP PPP (2016) retrieved from https://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/GDP-PPP-based-table

3.      The World Bank Data Catalog Dataset GDP YOY Growth (2016) retrieved from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?page=

4.      Harris, J. R., Todaro, M.P. (1970), Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis. The American Economic Review. Vol. 60, No. 1, 126-142

5.      The World Bank: India's Poverty Profile (2016) retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/infographic/2016/05/27/india-s-poverty-profile

6.      Vaidya, B. C. (Ed). (2003). Geography of transport development in india. Concept publishing company,  New Delhi

7.      WHO Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution Database (2016) retrieved from http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/cities/en/

8.      Madan, G. R. (1971). Social changes and problems of development in India. Allied Publishers, Bombay

9.      Kosambi, D.D. (1946). Early Stages of the Caste System in Northern India. Journal of the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, Vol.22, 39-45

10.   Husrt, C.E., Gibbon, H.M.F., Nurse A.M. (2002). Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences. Routledge

11.   Bhatt, A. (1989). Development and Social Justice; Migration by Weaker Sections.Sage Publications, New Delhi

12.   Khan, J. H. (2010). Socio-Economic and Structural Analysis of Internal Migration: A Micro Level Study(pp 98-112). Serials Publications, New Delhi

13.   Begum, S. and Binayak, S., Sustainable Livelihoods, Health Shocks and Urban Chronic Poverty: Rickshaw Pullers as a Case Study, Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies, CPRC Working Paper, Vol. 46, pp.1-26, 2004.

14.   Begum, S. and Binayak, S.(2005). Pulling rickshaws in the city of Dhaka: a way out of poverty?. Environment and urbanization. 17(2), 11-25

15.   R, Rueveny. (2007). Climate change-induced migration and violent conflict. Political Geography, 26, 656-673.

16.   Deshingkar, P., Akter, S. (2009). Migration and Human Development in India. by United Nations Development Programme Human Development Reports Research Paper 2009/13

17.   Peng, S.: “Sanhai No Jinrikisha Mondai (The Rickshaw Problem in Shanghai)”, Shina Kenkyu, Vol. 37, pp.197-226, 1935

18.   Saito, T.: “Jinrikisha (The Rickshaw)”, Sangyo GijutsuSenta, Tokyo, Shenbao, Shanghai, (1979)

19.   Warren, J.F. (2003). Rickshaw Coolie: A People's History of Singapore, 1880-1940. NUS Press, Singapore.

20.   Haq. S. A., et. al. (2005). Prevalence of rheumatic diseases and associated outcomes in rural and urban communities in Bangladesh: a COPCORD study. The Journal of Rheumatology. 32(2), 348-353

21.   Mishra, P.S., Lakra, S. (2014). Livelihood issues of unorganised labourers: with special reference to the rickshaw pullers in bilaspur city. International journal of development research.4(6), 1228-1233.

22.   Islam, M. S., et. al. (2016). Socioeconomic Profile and Health Status of Rickshaw Pullers in Rural Bangladesh. American Journal of Food Science and Health. Vol 2 (4), 32-38.

23.   Ahmed, A.: “Bangladesh Rickshaw Drivers in Cycle of Despair”, Reuters, March 15, 2005. Aligarh DainikJagran: “Rickshaw”, June 12, 2009.

24.   Ganguly, S.: “Calcutta’s rickshaw-Pullers”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 17, No. 41, p. 1636, 1982.

25.   Pacione, M.: “Urban Geography: A Global Perspective”, New York: Routledge, 2005.

26.   Kishwar, M. P.: “Urban Informal Sector: The Need for a Bottom-up Agenda of Economic Reforms-Case Studies of Cycle Rickshaws and Street Vendors in Delhi”, In India: Urban Poverty Report, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 309-326,2009.

27.   Poirier, Y.: “Rickshaw Bank in India: An Initiative for Alternative Employment”, February, Available at http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph 7718.html (accessed on 26 March, 2010),2009.

28.   Alam Rukhsana and Asraful Alam.2013. Socio - Economic Analysis of Van-Rickshaw Puller (Manual) In Rural Areas-A Case Study.2013. Indian Streams Research Journal. 3(11):1- 5.

29.   Nandhi, Mani Arul (2011): “The Urban Poor and Their Money: A Study of Cycle Rickshaw Pullers in Delhi”, Institute for Financial Management and Research (IFMR), Centre for Microfinance, Chennai

30.   ILO: Extending social security to all: A guide through challenges and options (Geneva, 2010).

31.   (Government of India, 2008): Problems o f Unorganized Sector Workers; Ministry of Labour and Employment, New Delhi. http://www.erewise.com/current-affairs/problems-of-unorganised-sectorworkers_art5253e5adee10f.html#.UuELgvvhXIU. Retrieved on 27/01/2014.

32.   Sen Amartya (1997 b), Development Thinking at the Beginning of the 21st Century, The Development Economic Research Programme- New Series, March, London School of Economics London.

33.   Romer, Paul (1990) ‘Endogenous Technological Change’. Journal of Political Economy 98 (5): S71-S102.

34.   Keller, W. (2004), ‘International Technology Diffusion’, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. XLII (3), pp. 752-82.

35.   Lucas, R. (1988). ‘On the mechanics of economic development.’ Journal of Monetary Economics, 22(1), 3–42.

36.   Ranis, G., (2011). Technology and human Development. Center Discussion Paper 1004. Economic Growth Center. Yale University.

37.   Nelson, D. 2010. India to replace ‘inhumane’ rickshaws with e-ricks. THE TELEGRAPH retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/7760010/India-to-replace-inhumane-rickshaws-with-e-ricks.html.

38.   S. Gadepalli, "Rickshaws in the new millennium", The Daily Star, June 30 2006, retrieved from http://www.thedailystar.net/2006/06/30/d606300901105.htm.

39.   Rajvanshi AK. Electric and Improved Cycle Rickshaws as a Sustainable Transport System for India. Current Science 2002; 83(6): 1-6.

40.   Md Ashraf Hossain, „‟ Encourage motorised rickshaw”, Daily New Age, June 4 2012, retrieved from http://newagebd.com/detail.php?date=2012-06-04&nid=12530#.UkNZwifFmQI.

41.   Rhaman, M. M., (2013). Electric Motorized Rickshaw Can Preserve the Inhumanity Rickshaw Labor in Bangladesh without Interrupt Power System. Proceedings of 4th Global Engineering, Science and Technology Conference 27-28 December, 2013, BIAM Foundation, Dhaka, Bangladesh ISBN: 978-1-922069-43-6

42.   Mitra, S. K., et. al. (2012). Battery Operated Auto-rickshaw and Its Role in Urban Income and Employment Generation. International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology. 1 (5).

43.   Mitra, S. K. et. al. (2013). Exploring operational Characteristics of Battery operated AutoRickshaws in Urban Transportation System. American Journal of Engineering Research. 2 (4). 1-11.

44.   Bhasin, R.& Bhardwaj, A. (2014). Structural flaws, unchecked growth make e-rickshaws a safety hazard. THE INDIAN EXPRESS.Accessed on 4 July at http://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/structural-flaws-unchecked-growth-makee-rickshaws-a-safety-hazard/.

45.   Tawfique Ali, “Electric Rickshaws run out of steam”, The Daily Star, May 30 2011, retreieved from http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=187825.

46.   PCA Data (1996) Registrar general of India retrieved from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/pca/Searchdata.aspx

47.   Alkire, S. (2016). Measures of Human Development: Key concepts and properties. OPHI Working Paper 107, University of Oxford

48.   United Nations Development Programme. (2012) One planet to share. Asia human development report.New Delhi: Routledge, Taylor and Francis

49.   Alkire, S. (2016). Measures of Human Development: Key concepts and properties. OPHI Working Paper 107, University of Oxford

50.   Ranis, Gustav “Technology and Human Development” 2011

51.   Azad Rickshaw Pullers Union (regd.) Ch. Town Hall, Amritsar V. State of Punjab & Ors 1981 AIR 14 1981 SCR (1) 366. (ruling 1980) retrieved from https://www.escr-net.org/caselaw/2009/azad-rickshaw-pullers-union-regd-ch-town-hall-amritsar-v-state-punjab-ors-1981-air-14

52.   Transport department, Government of national capital territory of Delhi. (2014). E-Rickshaw Sewa Scheme (2014) retrieved from http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/68855600475e7edb9c6dfc825d7a2a20/E-RICKSHAW+SEWA+SCHEME.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&lmod=-1542501104&CACHEID=68855600475e7edb9c6dfc825d7a2a20&E-RICKSHAW%20SEWA%20SCHEME

53.   The central motor vehicle rules. (1989). Chapter 1, Preliminary. Retrieved from http://www.tn.gov.in/sta/Cmvr1989.pdf

54.   Central Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Rules. (1993). G.S.R. 111 (E). Government of India retrieved from  http://www.vakilno1.com/bareacts/centrlmotr1989/centrlmotr.html

55.   Press information bureau. (June 2014). Ministry of road transport and highways. Government of India retrieved from http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=105700

 

 

 

Accepted on 27.07.2020           ©AandV Publications All right reserved